Methods of Psychology

• Observations are carried on under controlled conditions, as in other sciences. The subjects may be observed in their natural environment, with various techniques used to ensure that they are not aware of being observed. For example, children may be allowed to play together in a room where they are observed through a one-way screen or window, or where their behavior is recorded by concealed cameras. Animals may be studied by a concealed observer, or by a person whose presence is accepted by the animals through familiarity.
• Experiments that show individual or group responses to controlled stimulation are important methods of investigation. Special devices and procedures are used to isolate the stimulus under investigation. For example, in studying the effect of certain odors on the sense of smell, the subject of the experiments is placed in a chamber from which all odors are excluded except the ones to be introduced by the investigator. The subject wears an odorless plastic garment that covers all but the face.
• Psychometrics (measurement techniques) include various mental tests and statistical analyses of test results.
• Interviews between the psychologist and the subject are helpful in giving the psychologist information, and often help the subject solve personal problems. By interview, a case history (history of relevant facts in the subject’s life) may be obtained. Psychoanalytic techniques may be used to help the individual discover and understand hidden, or unconscious, motives and feelings.
• Surveys consist of interviews or questionnaires to find out the reactions of groups. Studies of public opinions and attitudes, and of buyers’ preferences (in market research) are applications of this method.

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Personality

Here are a number of definitions of personality from across the years:

‘The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment’ – Allport, 1937

‘that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation.’ – Cattell, 1965

‘One’s habits and usual style, but also…ability to play roles.’ – Cronbach, 1984

‘personality traits are the key antecedent of an individual’s cognitions and affective states that may influence his or her task and interpersonal or socio-emotional role behavior (in teams). – Moynihan and Peterson, 2001

Measurement of personality

Measured as ‘a set of items, usually questions or statements about feelings, or behavior, to which subjects have to respond by answering the question, or agreeing or disagreeing with the statements.’ – Kline, 1993

‘Measure of both internal dimensions, or feelings, and external dimensions, or behaviors’ – Searle, 2003

In practice

In practice, personality is how we see ourselves and others. It is how we describe a person as noisy, thoughtful, decisive and so on. In fact the language is laden with descriptors that we use every day to describe personality.

Measurement of personality is used often to help recruit the right person into a job. In some ways it also appears in mystic prediction system such as astrology.

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Coping Mechanisms

We are complex animals living complex lives in which we are not always able to cope with the difficulties that we face. As a result, we are subject to feelings of tension and stress, for example the cognitive dissonance and potential shame of doing something outside our values. To handle this discomfort we use various coping methods.

Here is a full list of coping mechanisms:

• Acting out: not coping - giving in to the pressure to misbehave.
• Aim inhibition: lowering sights to what seems more achievable.
• Altruism: Helping others to help self.
• Attack: trying to beat down that which is threatening you.
• Avoidance: mentally or physically avoiding something that causes distress.
• Compartmentalization: separating conflicting thoughts into separated compartments.
• Compensation: making up for a weakness in one area by gain strength in another.
• Conversion: subconscious conversion of stress into physical symptoms.
• Denial: refusing to acknowledge that an event has occurred.
• Displacement: shifting of intended action to a safer target.
• Dissociation: separating oneself from parts of your life.
• Emotionality: Outbursts and extreme emotion.
• Fantasy: escaping reality into a world of possibility.
• Help-rejecting complaining: Ask for help then reject it.
• Idealization: playing up the good points and ignoring limitations of things desired.
• Identification: copying others to take on their characteristics.
• Intellectualization: avoiding emotion by focusing on facts and logic.
• Introjection: Bringing things from the outer world into the inner world.
• Passive aggression: avoiding refusal by passive avoidance.
• Performing rituals: Patterns that delay.
• Positive coping: Coping can be done well!
• Post-traumatic growth: Using the energy of trauma for good.
• Projection: seeing your own unwanted feelings in other people.
• Provocation: Get others to act so you can retaliate.
• Rationalization: creating logical reasons for bad behavior.
• Reaction Formation: avoiding something by taking a polar opposite position.
• Regression: returning to a child state to avoid problems.
• Repression: subconsciously hiding uncomfortable thoughts.
• Self-harming: physically damaging the body.
• Somatization: psychological problems turned into physical symptoms.
• Sublimation: channeling psychic energy into acceptable activities.
• Substitution: Replacing one thing with another.
• Suppression: consciously holding back unwanted urges.
• Symbolization: turning unwanted thoughts into metaphoric symbols.
• Trivializing: Making small what is really something big.
• Undoing: actions that psychologically ‘undo’ wrongdoings for the wrongdoer.

Remember that coping actions are usually symptoms of deeper problems and addressing them directly can be ineffective or even counter-productive. The best approach is to discover the deeper cause and address this, which will hopefully then result in the coping mechanism disappearing.

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Personality Models and Tests

There are a range of models relating to personality. although some are more about preferences and typing than inherent personality. These include:

• 16PF: Cattell’s sixteen basic personality factors. Test 
• Big Five factors: A simplification to five factors from the 16PF. Test
• DISC Types: Four simple types. Test
• Freud’s Personality Factors: Id, Ego, cathexis and other classic stuff. 
• MMPI: Clinical psychiatric conditions. 
• Jungian Type Inventory: The oldest modern typing system. Test
• Sheldon’s Body Personality: You are what your shape is.
• Satir’s Stress Responders: Five types in response to stress.
• Type A and Type B personalities: Prone to heart attacks or not? Test

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Social Psychology Basics

Our perception of ourselves in relation to the rest of the world plays an important role in our choices, behaviors, and beliefs. Conversely, the opinions of others also impact our behavior and the way we view ourselves. Social psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how social phenomena influence us and how people interact with others. There are some basic aspects of social behavior that play a large role in our actions and how we see ourselves.

• Social behavior is goal-oriented. Our interactions function to serve a goal or fulfill a need. Some common goals or needs include the need for social ties, the desire to understand ourselves and others, the wish to gain or maintain status or protection, and to attract companions.


• The interaction between the individual and the situation determines the outcome. In many instances, people behavior very differently in various situations. The situation plays an important role and has a strong influence on our behavior.


• People spend a great deal of time considering social situations. Our social interactions help form our self-concept and perception. 
  One method of forming self-concept is through a reflected appraisal process in which we imagine how other people see us. Another method is through a social comparison process whereby we consider how we compare to other people in our peer group.


• We also analyze and explain the behavior of those around us. One common phenomenon is expectation confirmation, where we tend to ignore unexpected attributes and look for evidence that confirms our preexisting beliefs about others. This helps simplify our worldview, but it also skews our perception and can contribute to stereotyping.


• Another influence on our perceptions of other people can be explained by the theory of correspondent inferences. This occurs when we infer that the actions and behaviors of others correspond to their intentions and personalities. While behavior can be informative in some instances, especially when the person’s actions are intentional, it can also be misleading. If we have limited interaction with someone, the behavior we see may be atypical or caused by the specific situation rather than by the persons overriding dispositional characteristics.

Studying social psychology can enrich our understanding of ourselves and of the world around us. (Source)

About social roles

People are playing roles; the particular role depends on the expectations from society

How do we learn social roles?
As we grow and develop in our lives, we also develop social attitudes which strongly influence our behavior. We internalize the attitudes of the society around us by making the attitudes our own. Besides attitudes, people internalize cultural expectations about how to behave. The process through which society influences individuals to internalize attitudes and expectations is called socialization. Individuals do not automatically absorb, but gradually accept cultural attitudes and roles. The individual is often unaware of his acceptance of these socially derived roles, roles are often accepted unconsciously. This is usually accomplished through the imitation of role models.

When do we act so?
When individuals “play” these roles dictated by the culture within which they live, they are sometimes conflicting with their own inner beliefs. Frequently, we may act as if we agree with our perceived social expectations, because we do not want to disappoint the people who expect us to meet a particular set of requirements. This can create an imbalance which may cause ones behavior to become illogical due to these perceived social influences.

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Big Five personality traits

In contemporary psychology, the “Big Five” factors (or Five Factor Model; FFM) of personality are five broad domains or dimensions of personality which are used to describe human personality. They are:

Openness – (inventive / curious vs. consistent / cautious). Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.
Conscientiousness – (efficient / organized vs. easy-going / careless). A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
Extraversion – (outgoing / energetic vs. shy / reserved). Energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others.
Agreeableness – (friendly / compassionate vs. cold / unkind). A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Neuroticism – (sensitive / nervous vs. secure / confident). A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability.

(via tamburina)

How do we perceive and judge information?

1. Sensing (“It smells nice”, “I need to touch it first”, “Let me see it”)
2. Intuiting (“I have a feeling something bad will happen”, “I bet today is going to go wonderfully”, “I sense there’s something special about you”)
3. Thinking (“Lets look at the problem logically”, “It doesn’t match the set criteria”, “That happened before”)
4. Feeling (“I feel pain”, “I love the energy in this room”, “It feels right”)

Body Language Basics

Body language is the art of making an educated guess at a person’s feelings or intentions based on their posture, movement and positioning. To understand a person’s body language you need to take into account more than one aspect of their body language.

Each action or stance in the following list means very little, unless there is more than one indicating the same thing. They may also vary between cultures.

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